Ioannis Makrygiannis (Krokyleio, Phocis, 1797 - Athens, April 27, 1864), an important figure of the Greek Revolution of 1821 and a general during the early years of independence, was born in January 1797 in the village of Avoriti, near Lidovriki in Phocis, and passed away on April 27, 1864, in Athens from excessive exhaustion after years of struggles and adventures. He was buried with honors at the First Cemetery of Athens, recognized as one of the heroes of the National Uprising.
Family Background of Ioannis Makrygiannis
Ioannis Makrygiannis married Aikaterini (Katigo) Skouze, daughter of Khatzis Georgantas Skouze, and together they had twelve children, six sons and two daughters survived. Makrygiannis and Katigo married in 1825, and from their union came a large family. The first four of his children were given ancient Greek and family names: the first child, Leonidas (1826), the second, Dimitrios (named after Makrygiannis' father), the third, Giorgis (1844-1873), and the fourth, Othon (1833-1901). The other children were: Nikolaos (1837-1860), Vasiliki (1839-1911), Thrasivoulos (1842-1865), Kitsos (1848-1928), and Eleni (1850-1910). Unfortunately, four of Makrygiannis' sons died at a young age, and the family endured great hardship due to these losses.
Makrygiannis' ancestry came from the Triantaphyllodimitri family, and his grandfather, Triantaphyllos Dimitriou, was an important figure in the region. His real name was Ioannis Dimitriou Triantaphyllou, but the nickname "Makrygiannis" derived from his tall stature, which had been a defining feature since his youth.
Makrygiannis' family was deeply affected by the hardships of the era. His father, Dimitrios, was killed by the Turks when Makrygiannis was only one year old. After this loss, Makrygiannis' family sought refuge in Livadia to escape the violence and oppression of the Ottoman conquerors. The personal tragedies and the harsh daily life he experienced from an early age seem to have shaped his personality and the sense of struggle for freedom and justice that characterized his entire life.
Early Years
From a young age, Makrygiannis showed his entrepreneurial spirit. At the age of 14, in 1811, he worked on the estates of Athanasios Lidovrikis in Arta, the secretary of Ali Pasha, and from 1814, he developed his own commercial network, using borrowed money and initially a small capital. His business activities, along with his involvement in financing, earned him a respectable fortune, although he was later criticized for usury. In 1820, while in Arta, he was initiated into the Filiki Eteria, though it is unclear who initiated him, as it is not specifically mentioned in his Memoirs.
In September 1820, Makrygiannis was arrested along with Thanasis Lidovrikis by the Bey of Nafpaktos, Baba Pasha. Thanks to his connections with Ali Pasha's circle, he was able to secure his release, and Lidovrikis, using his own network, also ensured the release of Makrygiannis. On March 13, 1821, Makrygiannis, after passing through Messolonghi, headed to Patras for a commercial trip and to gather information about the situation in the area for the benefit of the Filiki Eteria of Arta. In Patras, he was spotted by the Turkish authorities and, suspecting danger, was forced to seek refuge at the Russian consulate to escape. After a manhunt, he fled in a felucca but was later captured on his return to Arta and imprisoned as a suspicious person due to his connections with Ali Pasha's circle.
Eventually, he was released with the help of Ismail Bey from Konitsa, an Albanian official and cousin of Ali Pasha. During these events, Makrygiannis played a crucial role in the development of the Revolution, and his actions in the region of Ioannina and the Peloponnese established him as one of the main protagonists of the struggle.
Revolutionary Actions of Makrygiannis
Makrygiannis, born in Arta, became one of the most prominent military figures of the Struggle for Greek Independence. In the early stages of the 1821 Revolution, he was arrested by the Turks in Patras, as he was suspected of involvement in the insurgent movements. On April 10 of the same year, during Great Saturday, he was imprisoned in Arta, from where he managed to escape after two months, proving his unwavering determination to continue the fight.
Initially, he served under the command of the local chieftain Gogo Bakola, whose strategic skills were highly valued by Makrygiannis. Together, they participated in the battles of Stavros and Peta (September 11, 1821), where they managed to defeat the powerful forces of Hassan Bey, resulting in a wounded but triumphant repulse of the Turkish offensive. In this important battle, Makrygiannis was injured in the leg.
The siege of Arta in November 1821 followed, during which he participated in the capture of the city. After the siege and his recovery in Sernikaki of Salona, Makrygiannis joined the local armed and prominent networks of Eastern Central Greece, supporting the work of Odysseas Androutsos. In the summer of 1821, as the leader of 10 men, he took part in the capture of Ypati.
During the fall of Athens, he participated in the battles as a soldier. Recognizing the injustices of the fortress commander, Yiannis Gkouras, at the Acropolis, Makriyannis offered his services and was offered the position of politarch. However, disappointment with the behavior of the leaders and Gkouras' greed led him to withdraw, heading towards Salamis.
In 1823, he collaborated with Nikitaras and participated in numerous military operations in Central Greece. In 1825, he defended the Neo-castle against Ibrahim, and that same year, he took part in the crucial Battle of Myloi in Argolis, where, led by Dimitrios Ypsilantis and with 300 men, they succeeded in overcoming Ibrahim's forces.
In 1826, during the Siege of the Acropolis, Makriyannis was severely wounded in the Battle of Serpetze and was transferred to Aegina for treatment while seeking help from the government. He returned to the Acropolis to collaborate with Karaiskakis in an attempt to break the Ottoman siege, though they were not successful. After this failure, he took up the post of fortress commander at the Acropolis, a position in which he confirmed his courage and strategic ability, defending the national symbol of Athens with unparalleled bravery.
Makriyannis' journey did not stop with the great battles of the struggle. In defending Greek independence, he remained active, participating in dangerous missions in Athens and Piraeus, making a decisive contribution to the final victory. His strategic genius and leadership skills established him as one of the most significant generals of the Greek War of Independence.
The Capodistrian Period
Upon the arrival of Ioannis Kapodistrias in Greece in 1828, Makriyannis, having integrated into the new political and military structure, assumed, with the government's blessing, the position of "General Chief of the Executive Power of the Peloponnese and Sparta." That same year, he settled with his family in Argos, where he remained until 1832. This position, though reflecting Kapodistrias' trust in him, provoked opposition among the Peloponnesians, who perceived him as a supporter of the regime and an adversary of Kolokotronis and other leading figures of the revolution. Despite the opposition, in 1829 Makriyannis was elected as a representative of Arta in the National Assembly of Argos, and in 1830 he took on the rank of chiliarch. However, this position was later removed due to the differences that arose between him and Kapodistrias.
The relationship between Makriyannis and the Governor gradually deteriorated. Influenced by rumors circulating about Kapodistrias' intentions to limit the territorial extent of the new Greek state to the Peloponnese, Makriyannis came into conflict with the government leader. Clashing with Kapodistrias' authoritarian policies and methods, Makriyannis accused him of cultivating an atmosphere of espionage and attempting to undermine the arrival of Leopold as the King of Greece. At the same time, he accused Kapodistrias of continuing the banditry in the Peloponnese and attempting to maintain his personal power.
The first serious confrontation between the two men occurred when Makriyannis refused to sign the oath that Kapodistrias required of public servants, considering it insulting to his honor. Makriyannis' refusal led to his removal from the position of Chief of the Executive Power of the Peloponnese, with Nikitaras replacing him in May 1830. The Governor offered him police duties on the Aegean islands, an offer he refused, arguing that he did not want to replace the fighters there.
In the summer of 1831, the activities of the anti-Kapodistrian secret organization, known as Dyna-mis or Herakleous, came to light. All public servants were asked to swear that they did not belong to this organization. Makriyannis refused to sign the required oath, proposing his own version, which was rejected. He was declared out of service, though he continued to strongly oppose the government's policies.
Amid the political turmoil, Makriyannis planned to capture the Palamidi fortress, aiming to pressure Kapodistrias to convene an assembly. However, the plan failed due to the refusal of the opposition in Hydra to fund the operation.
After the assassination of Kapodistrias in October 1831, Makriyannis headed to Corinth and then to Itea to support the war leader Stathis Katsikogiannis, actively participating in the political developments of the region. At the same time, he continued writing his Memoirs, in which he denounced Kapodistrias' authoritarian practices and highlighted the difficult political situation during Kapodistrias' administration.
Reign of Otto and the Political Actions of Makrygiannis
With the arrival of Otto in Greece in 1833, Makrygiannis sought to express his loyalty to the new king by submitting a series of memoranda for the restoration of the fighters of the Revolution and the recognition of their rights. Although he initially hoped for a positive future for the 1821 warriors, he soon realized the political injustices that accompanied Otto's reign. The attitude of the Bavarians, mostly shown through their disregard for the fighters, caused him great disappointment. The mistreatment of the revolutionaries was the main cause of his frustration, reflecting his personal stance and political actions.
In late March 1833, Makrygiannis was promoted to major in the first of the ten battalions of sharpshooters that were formed to restore order and security in the capital. Despite his successes in this field, he refused to take a staff position in the newly established rural police, considering his participation in this institution to be dependent on foreign influence and repressive to the freedoms of the Greek people.
Makrygiannis’ political activity as a municipal councilor in Athens brought him into direct conflict with the authorities. Aiming to protect the interests of the Greek people and uphold their freedoms, he managed to mobilize the municipal council to issue a resolution calling on Otto to grant a constitution to the Greek people. This action highlighted Makrygiannis' deep dissatisfaction with the abuses and over-taxation the people suffered under the administration of Armansperg and the Bavarians.
From 1836 to 1840, Makrygiannis withdrew from the political scene, choosing to dedicate himself to painting and recording scenes from the Sacred Struggle of 1821. Despite his withdrawal, his need for justice and freedom led him to return to politics in 1840, where he formed a broader political movement that gathered democratic and liberal men around him, demanding the granting of a constitution by Otto.
The culmination of his efforts came with the bloodless uprising of September 3, 1843, when, with the help of the army and Dimitrios Kallergis, Otto was forced to grant the Constitution. In the formation of the 1844 Constitution, Makrygiannis played an active role, influencing the developments toward democratic restoration. Meanwhile, in 1845, he was the target of a failed assassination attempt, which was accused by the opposition press of being fabricated by him to serve his political goals.
His political action and his relationships with dissenters and exiled democrats led to new confrontations with Otto's reign. In 1852, the visit of the exiled Polish general Milwits to Greece, considered a sign of conspiracy against the regime, led to his arrest and charges of treason and conspiracy. On March 16, 1853, the military court sentenced him to death by hanging, a decision that shocked public opinion. Ultimately, his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and later reduced to ten years, thanks to the intervention of the Greek people and the international community.
Makrygiannis was imprisoned under inhumane conditions in the Mendrese, where he suffered severe physical hardships, and his health deteriorated. According to testimonies, he suffered terribly, as he "was infested with all kinds of worms," and his physical health had been seriously compromised. Despite the conditions of imprisonment, he was released on September 2, 1854, through the intervention of Dimitrios Kallergis, though his health remained fragile.
In the 1862 movement against Otto's reign, Makrygiannis emerged as a symbol of resistance and popular counterattack. The people of Athens hailed him and paraded him triumphantly through the city, recognizing his role as a leading figure in the struggle. In the elections of 1863, he was elected as a representative of Athens, and in 1869 he was promoted to lieutenant general, although his health had already been shattered by the wounds and oppression he had endured throughout his life.
As a representative of Athens, Makrygiannis participated in the discussions at the 1844 National Assembly regarding the rights of foreigners. As a fervent supporter of autochthony, he was one of the most vocal proponents of this position and raised the issue of excluding foreigners from public office. His intervention led the discussion toward the need to define the qualifications of those demanding public positions, influencing the decisions of the National Assembly. Despite his position, Makrygiannis would later express criticism of this policy and the division it created, which he attributed to a conspiracy of politicians and foreigners.
In the summer of 1844, he participated in the elections for the first parliament after the September 3, 1843 Revolution but was not elected, despite winning 48% of the votes in Athens. Despite his failure to be elected, he participated in the publication of the newspaper Ethnokrati and took over the finances of the publishing company. In June 1845, he uncovered an unconstitutional secret society to the Minister of Military Affairs, Kitsos Zavellas, and was warned of a possible assassination attempt against him, which was carried out on June 22 by two unknown men.
The End of Ioannis Makrygiannis
After the adoption of the Constitution of 1844, Ioannis Makrygiannis essentially withdrew from any form of active engagement and confined himself to writing articles, without visibly participating in the political events of the time. Gradually, he received fewer visitors at his home, most of whom were old comrades, monks, and travelers who came to meet him and discuss the political and social issues of the era. Despite his health problems and the consequences of the injuries he sustained during the Revolution, Makrygiannis remained informed about current events, although he avoided actively engaging in political matters.
His poor health, resulting from injuries, illnesses, and brain damage, led him to fully distance himself from the 1848 movement that took place in Greece, citing his inability due to his poor health as the reason.
Regarding his family, Makrygiannis' life was heavily burdened by personal losses. He had married Aikaterini (Katiggo) Skouze, daughter of Chatzis Georgantas Skouze, and together they had 12 children, of which six sons and two daughters survived. Among them, the first four children were named after family tradition and ancient Greek history. The first child, Leonidas, was born in 1826, while the second, Dimitrios, was named after Makrygiannis' father. Among the other sons of Makrygiannis was Giorgis (1844-1873), who was named after Katiggo's father, and Othon (1833-1901). Four of his children died at a young age, with his son Dimitrios passing away at only 3.5 years old, likely due to a systemic illness such as congenital immunodeficiency or diabetes, as he often had health problems and suffered from infections.
The death certificate of Ioannis Makrygiannis was registered with number 218 on April 27, 1864. This certificate, which is referenced in the book Lixiarchion Athinon 1836-2006. Historical Data and Surviving Records by Eleftherios Skiadas, was signed by the landowner Ioannis Davaris, while the witnesses to his death were Georgios Kitzos and Stavros Fylipidos. Makrygiannis' death occurred around 3 in the morning, and his death certificate was signed by the acting mayor, Emmanouil Koutsikaris.
Memory of Makrygiannis
The toponym "Makrygiannis" refers to an area of Athens, directly beneath and southwest of the Acropolis. This area is linked to the General himself, who owned part of his property there. This location highlights the emotional and historical weight of the area, as it was the home and center of his life. In memory of Makrygiannis, his statue stands near the Dionysus Theater, on the pedestrian street of Dionysiou Areopagitou, at a spot where large crowds pass by daily, thus reminding people of his contribution to the struggle for Greece's independence. The statue symbolizes his political and military contributions and his significance in the national liberation.
The last descendant of General Makrygiannis was Kitsos Maltezos, who belonged to the younger generations of Makrygiannis. Kitsos, a student of Law and a dedicated nationalist, met a tragic end during the Occupation, when he was murdered by communist colleagues. His death occurred during one of the darkest periods in modern Greek history, during the German occupation, when political and ideological differences among Greek resistance fighters reached their peak.
A Contradictory Personality
Makrygiannis' personality is marked by intense contradictions, which often led to conflicts both with his comrades and with the society of his time. Despite his undeniable participation in the struggle for national independence and his heroic stance, Makrygiannis also faced significant political and economic contradictions. One of his most well-known contradictions was the conflict that arose over the allocation of land in Athens, which caused tensions and dissatisfaction among the fighters of 1821.
His economic stance and behavior led to negative critiques from his contemporaries, who considered him greedy. Many believed that Makrygiannis exploited public property acquired by the Greek government for personal gain. At the same time, his personal attitude toward poverty and deprivation, especially during the First National Assembly of the Greeks (1843-1844), revealed his unapologetically realistic view. Makrygiannis forcefully stated, "If we are to stay hungry, let freedom go to hell," thus demonstrating his opposition to the idea of freedom if it meant sacrificing the well-being and dignity of the people.
These statements and behaviors make Makrygiannis' personality an object of contradictions and controversies, with a strong tendency to pursue personal benefits even amid the difficulties of the struggle for freedom.
Testimonies and Documents of Makrygiannis
The testimonies and documents left by General Makrygiannis are invaluable historical material for understanding the events of the 1821 Revolution and the political and military processes of the time. These elements can be categorized into four main groups:
Memoirs – The first and most well-known historical discourse of Makrygiannis. The Memoirs, recorded as a personal testimony, describe his experiences and strategies during the Revolution, offering valuable information about his actions and political views. In this work, Makrygiannis also shares his personal judgments about his comrades and the nature of the struggle.
Historical Documents – This category includes various documents related to Makrygiannis' reports to the Administration and the newspapers of the time. It also includes letters, oaths, and other documents connected to his commercial and other activities in Arta before the Revolution. These documents provide a glimpse into the multifaceted personality of Makrygiannis, who was not limited to military action but also engaged in the administrative and commercial life of the era.
"Frames of War" – This is a series of paintings created by Makrygiannis with the help of the painter Panagiotis Zografos. According to his Memoirs, Makrygiannis initially asked a foreign painter to depict the military operations of the Revolution. However, unsatisfied with the work and due to language difficulties, he replaced the painter with Panagiotis Zografos. Their collaboration lasted from 1836 to 1839 and resulted in 25 paintings depicting scenes of war and liberation. These images bear Makrygiannis' personal stamp, as they are "dictated" by his own judgments and interpretations of the events of the Revolution. In 1839, he presented these paintings to diplomats, philhellenes, military personnel, and politicians.
Visions and Themes – This category includes Makrygiannis' second historical work, which refers to religious and prophetic visions that served as expressions of his inner faith and personal experiences. It strongly incorporates the religious dimension of the era and his anticipation of divine assistance in the fulfillment of the national ideal.
The "Frames of War": Painting and Politics
It is noteworthy that the "frames of war," the works depicting the military operations of the Greek Revolution, hold particular historical significance. As Makrygiannis tells us, the images of war serve as vivid tools to highlight the heroic contributions of the Greeks in the struggle for freedom. The creation of these works aimed to showcase his personal contribution and the heroism of the Greek people, while also expressing his gratitude toward the foreign powers that supported Greek independence.
The initial collaboration with the foreign painter, who failed to meet Makrygiannis' expectations, reveals the general’s consciousness of the need to portray the Greek Revolution in a specific way, free from external cultural influences that might distort the Greek national identity. Replacing the original painter with Panagiotis Zografos, and producing 25 works from 1836 to 1839, represents a significant artistic effort to record the revolution according to Makrygiannis' own wishes. Presenting these works to foreign diplomats and philhellenes in Athens links art with diplomatic and political strategy, while the paintings are far from being merely artistic works, as they carry within them the weight of national and political action.
The delivery of these images to foreign ambassadors was both an act of gratitude and diplomatic policy, reflecting how Makrygiannis wanted to project the new Greece to the international world as a nation that had gained its freedom through blood and sacrifices.
"The content of Makrygiannis’ writing is the endless and real struggle of a man who, with all the instincts of his people deeply rooted within him, seeks freedom, justice, and humanity. He fought, struggled, believed, was maimed, was disgusted, became angry. But he remained— as emerges from his writing— always upright, until the end: a man at the height of man. He became neither superhuman nor a worm."
Giorgos Seferis, "A Greek, Makrygiannis"
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