Adamantios Korais

ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΑ

Adamantios Korais (Smyrna, April 27, 1748 – Paris, April 6, 1833) was a Greek philologist with a profound knowledge of Greek culture. He is considered one of the most important figures of the Modern Greek Enlightenment and is remembered, among other things, as a pioneer in the publication of works from ancient Greek literature. He is also known for his linguistic views, particularly his support of a moderate form of katharevousa (a purified version of the Greek language), aiming to cleanse the language of the people from numerous foreign words.

The house at Voorburgwal 65, where Adamantios Korais lived in Amsterdam during the 1770s

Childhood and Teenage Years

Adamantios Korais was born in Smyrna on April 27, 1748. His father, Ioannis Korais, was a successful silk merchant from Chios who had turned to trade at a young age due to being orphaned. Within the Greek community of Smyrna, Ioannis often served as a community elder or trustee of institutions, including the Metochion of the Holy Sepulchre, and he even presided over the system of Chians in the city. His mother, Thomais Rysios, came from an educated family and was one of the few women of her time who could read and write, originating from Rysion in Asia Minor.

Both sides of Korais' family included scholars: on his father's side, a distant ancestor was the physician-philosopher Antonios Korais, his uncle was Bishop Sophronios of Belgrade, and another relative, Hieromonk Kyrillos, was a teacher in Chios. His lineage also included the brave naval knight Konstantinos Korais (?-1754). On his mother's side, his grandfather Adamantios Rysios — from whom he inherited his first name — was a renowned scholar and teacher in Smyrna and Chios. Rysios died just a year before Korais' birth (1747) and had wished to teach Greek to his grandchildren. His will stipulated that his vast library would go to the first grandchild who completed elementary school with outstanding knowledge. Adamantios, at twelve years old, fulfilled this condition in 1760.

Adamantios Korais was the eldest of eight children, though only one brother, Andreas, survived alongside him. He first studied at the Evangelical School of Smyrna, where he was taught by Hierotheos Dendrinos — a period he later described in a letter as "very poor teaching, accompanied by abundant beating." Due to the excessive physical punishments, his brother Andreas dropped out, but Adamantios persevered, determined to earn his grandfather’s library. He excelled in learning ancient Greek literature and, during his teenage years, began studying French and Italian. He also learned Hebrew from a Jewish scholar and Latin from the Dutch pastor at Smyrna’s Dutch consulate, Bernhard Keun.

In Amsterdam

Due to his father's wishes — especially since only two of his eight children had survived — Korais was expected to pursue a career in commerce. Thus, in 1771, they agreed that he would move to Amsterdam, where he could simultaneously assist with family businesses and broaden his intellectual horizons. After a 26-day voyage aboard a Danish ship, with a stop in Livorno, he arrived in the bustling, multicultural city of Amsterdam, bearing a letter of recommendation from Bernhard Keun.

Initially, he worked as a representative for a company based in Smyrna. Thanks to Keun’s recommendation, he was warmly received by the Calvinist Adrianus Virto and his learned wife, who helped him quickly learn Dutch and acclimate. His time there was marked by "the versatility of his activities" and his rapid intellectual transformation: he learned Dutch, Hebrew, and Spanish, played the guitar, practiced fencing, and studied sciences like geometry. Meanwhile, he continued expanding his classical studies. He even pursued a relationship with a Lutheran girl and was planning marriage, but her untimely death ended that prospect.

Korais' commercial endeavors focused on intermediary activities. However, when he attempted to bypass middlemen by investing capital into direct production and marine trade, he failed. The misalignment between business strategies and capital management led to the collapse of the enterprise.

In a 1774 letter to his father, Stamatis Petrou, an experienced employee of the family, described Korais as "a young man of social affairs, dressed in a French coat and hat, going to the opera and sometimes visiting his sweetheart, indulging in pleasures. He is not suited for trade!"

By 1777, after spending considerable money and losing many dreams, Korais reluctantly left Amsterdam, traveling through Leipzig, Vienna, and Venice before returning to Smyrna. He tried to delay his return to Ottoman-ruled Smyrna, hoping his parents would find resources for him to continue studying elsewhere. In Leipzig, he met the physician-philosopher Thomas Mandakasis, who introduced him to the teachings of Eugenios Voulgaris. In Vienna, he stayed for 40 days with his uncle, Bishop Sophronios, and in Venice, during the winter of 1778–1779, he spent time reading in public libraries.

Back in Smyrna

Korais finally returned to Smyrna in the spring of 1779. Upon arrival, he discovered that a major fire had destroyed his family home and much of the city, forcing the now nearly impoverished family to relocate to a poorer district. He worked as a secretary for his father and other trustees at the Metochion of the Holy Sepulchre. The oppressive atmosphere under Ottoman rule, combined with the lack of education and freedom, deeply repelled him, and he sought any opportunity to return to the civilized West.

Although his parents planned for him to marry a wealthy acquaintance, Korais resisted and insisted on studying medicine. Due to his declining health, his parents eventually relented.

In Montpellier

In October 1782, Korais left again, this time for medical studies in Montpellier, France. His father died in 1783, followed by his mother in 1784. From then on, Korais faced financial difficulties. Nevertheless, thanks to financial support from Makarios Notaras, he completed his studies. In 1786, he published his thesis Pyretologiae Synopsis in Latin and his shorter doctoral dissertation Medicus Hippocraticus in 1787.

In Paris

Although he had earned his medical degree in Montpellier, Korais decided not to practice medicine. Instead, he chose to live in Paris, dedicating himself to literary pursuits. He arrived in Paris on June 24, 1788, just before the outbreak of the French Revolution, and witnessed the events surrounding the Storming of the Bastille firsthand.

He became acquainted with many revolutionaries and liberals, including future U.S. President Thomas Jefferson. Inspired by the passion for freedom that sprang from learning, reading, and the works of Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, and others, Korais resolved to remain permanently in France and dedicate himself to the national awakening of Greeks. He worked on creating a vast network for the circulation of Greek books, often under the nose of the Ottoman authorities.

He collaborated with merchants and scholars such as Alexandros Vasileiou, Iakovos Rotas, Neophytos Vamvas, Theophilos Kairis, Dimitrios Darvaris, Konstantinos Koumas, Konstantinos Oikonomos ex Oikonomon, Christophoros Filitas, and the wealthy Zosimas brothers. These figures either taught at Greek schools in Vienna, Corfu, Chios, Kydonies, Smyrna, and elsewhere or used their commercial networks to distribute books to Greek communities from ports like Marseille, Trieste, Livorno, and Venice.

Although he accepted French citizenship, Korais remained firmly committed to his Greek identity. He declined financial aid from friends and supported himself by translating medical works into popular language and copying manuscripts from Parisian archives on commission. Initially, he lived at the house of his wealthy friend and Greek language student Etienne Clavière, and later, during 1793–1795, at Clavière's country estate in Nozay, 25 km south of Paris. Around 1804–1805, Korais had the opportunity to meet Napoleon when an old professor from Montpellier, now in the Emperor's staff, asked him to translate Strabo’s Geographica into French for an upcoming campaign, for a fee of three thousand francs.

Intellectual Activity

First Works

For livelihood reasons, Korais initially translated books from German and English into French, such as The Catechism or Orthodox Teaching by Russian Metropolitan Platon of Moscow and Clinical Medicine by the German physician-philosopher Christian Gottlieb Selle. In Paris, Korais continued his intellectual work by editing and publishing ancient Greek texts, often accompanied by extensive prolegomena and commentaries aiming to "awaken" the Greek nation. His first major publishing endeavor was the edition of Isocrates' works (Isocratis Orationes) in 1789. This was followed by editions of other classical authors such as Plutarch, Xenophon, and Aristotle, always with long introductions where Korais analyzed the contemporary situation of the Greeks and the paths toward national regeneration through education and return to ancient values.

Among his most important early publications was the Salpisma Polemistirion (Military Trumpet Call) in 1801, a fiery pamphlet encouraging Greeks to seek liberation from Ottoman rule. In the same spirit, he translated and commented on revolutionary texts like the American Declaration of Independence and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adapting their ideas for the Greek context.

The "Hellenic Library"

One of Korais' most significant contributions was the project known as the Hellenic Library (Elliniki Vivliothiki), a multi-volume series aimed at making the works of ancient Greek writers accessible to the modern Greek reader. Each volume included an introduction (Prolegomena) where he not only analyzed the classical text but also discussed the current needs of the Greek people, promoting education, national consciousness, and linguistic reform.

The Hellenic Library began publication in 1805 and continued throughout his life. Authors such as Epictetus, Aesop, Theophrastus, and Plutarch were among those edited and introduced by Korais in this series. His prefaces were often longer than the actual classical texts and became important manifestos of the Greek Enlightenment.

Linguistic Views

Korais also became deeply involved in the debate about the Greek language. He proposed a middle path between the spoken demotic (popular) language and the archaic ancient Greek, formulating katharevousa ("purified language"). He envisioned a gradual purification of modern Greek, removing foreign elements (especially Turkish, Italian, and Slavic words) and restoring it closer to its classical roots, without rendering it incomprehensible to the common people. This proposal profoundly influenced the evolution of the modern Greek language.

Participation in the Greek War of Independence

When the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821, Korais enthusiastically supported the Revolution from Paris. Although he was too old and physically weak to return to Greece, he wrote countless letters to Greek leaders, including Theodoros Kolokotronis, Alexandros Mavrokordatos, and Ioannis Kapodistrias, offering advice and encouragement. He urged moderation, unity, and a constitutional form of government inspired by the American and French models.

He also contributed financially by raising funds among the Greek diaspora and friends of Greece in Europe. Through his writings and influence, he played a major role in gaining European intellectual support for the Greek cause.

Later Years and Death

After the declaration of Greek independence, Korais declined several offers to return to Greece and assume public office, citing his advanced age and fragile health. However, he continued corresponding with Greek leaders and advising them on education and constitutional matters.

He died in Paris on April 6, 1833, just a few weeks before his 85th birthday, and was buried there. His remains were later transferred to Greece in recognition of his immense contribution to the Greek national awakening.

Legacy

Adamantios Korais is widely regarded as a founding father of modern Greece. His vision of an educated, free, and enlightened Greek nation helped shape both the Revolution of 1821 and the intellectual life of the newly established Greek state. His influence on the Greek language, education system, and political thought remains profound to this day.

Theological Work

Adamantios Korais, being a multifaceted personality, also engaged with the theological aspect of the education of Greeks. He was consciously an Orthodox Christian, but he believed that the Orthodox Church had been significantly altered compared to the original faith of the Apostles. He attributed much of this distortion to monasticism and the widespread lack of education he observed. Korais was critical of religious superstition, the ignorance of the clergy, and practices such as the Holy Fire. He essentially sought a reform based on the education of the enslaved Greeks, which is why he warmly praised the Holy Scriptures, likening them to a bright beacon. He emphasized the need for Greeks to return to the sources of the Gospel and the Bible. He believed that religion was a deeply personal matter and rejected the scholasticism of formal ecclesiastical rules.

Linguistic and Political Views

Korais was a supporter of the katharevousa form of the Greek language, which he envisioned as a middle ground between ancient Greek and the popular demotic tongue. He believed that katharevousa could form the foundation for the creation of a unified national language that would unite Greeks and help them develop their national consciousness. A central point of his positions was moderate linguistic reform. His goal was to create a language understandable to educated Greeks but not too distant from the language spoken by the common people. He viewed language as a living tool of communication and expression, capable of meeting the needs of modern life.

Korais’s katharevousa was not a static, unchanging language but rather a dynamic one, evolving over time by incorporating elements from both ancient Greek and demotic speech. He believed that katharevousa could serve as the basis for forging a single national language, unifying the Greeks and aiding in the development of their national identity.

Politically, Korais was a liberal and a democrat. He advocated for freedom of speech, thought, and religion. He supported a republican form of government and popular sovereignty. His political theories were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution. He championed liberty, equality, and democracy. He believed that Greeks must fight for their liberation from Ottoman rule and the creation of an independent Greek state.

However, he was not an uncritical supporter of the French Revolution. He criticized its excesses and maintained that freedom must be accompanied by virtue and prudence. He advocated for moderate political reform, rooted in the principles of the Enlightenment but adapted to the particular circumstances of Greek society.

Contribution to the Greek Revolution

Korais played a crucial role in preparing for the Greek War of Independence. Through his writings, he awakened the national consciousness of the Greeks and encouraged them to struggle for their freedom. His contribution to the Revolution of 1821 was primarily intellectual. By publishing the works of ancient Greek authors, he sought to instill in the Greeks a love for their ancient heritage and provide them with a model for national identity.

He believed that knowledge of the ancient Greek language and literature was essential for understanding the history and culture of the nation. Through his linguistic theories, he tried to create a unified national language that would foster Greek national consciousness. Korais believed that language was a vital tool for shaping national identity and promoting national unity.

During the Revolution, he remained in Paris, where he worked to raise European awareness of the Greek cause. He wrote letters to European leaders and intellectuals, urging them to support the Greek struggle for independence. He was convinced that European assistance was essential for the success of the Greek Revolution.

Death and Legacy

Adamantios Korais died in Paris on April 6, 1833, at the age of 85. His remains were transferred to Greece in 1877 and interred at the First Cemetery of Athens.

Korais's political theories exerted a profound influence on Greek society, contributing to the awakening of national consciousness and the preparation for the Greek Revolution. His intellectual legacy remains alive to this day. His ideas on freedom, education, and national unity continue to inspire the Greek people.

Many cities and towns in Greece have named streets, squares, and schools after Korais. The University of Athens has established the "Korais Library," dedicated to the collection and study of his works. Numerous books and studies have been written about his life and work. Monuments and statues in his honor have been erected in many cities across Greece.

Adamantios Korais stands as one of the most important figures of the Modern Greek Enlightenment. His work had a profound impact on Greek society, awakening national consciousness and helping prepare for the Greek Revolution. His ideas on liberty, education, and national unity continue to inspire Greeks to this day. He is considered one of the founding fathers of the modern Greek state and one of its greatest national benefactors.

Works

Orthodox Teaching, Leipzig, 1782

Summary of Sacred History and Catechism, Venice, 1783

Small Catechism, Vienna, 1774

Summary of Pyretology, 1786

A Hippocratic Doctor, 1787

Clinical Medicine, Montpellier, 1787

Emendations on Hippocrates

On the Food from Aquatic Creatures by Xenocrates

Introduction to the Study of Nature and Medicine, Montpellier, 1795

Medical Companion, Paris, 1796

Medical Observations, Paris, 1796

History of Medicine and Surgery, Paris, 1789

Hippocrates' "On Airs, Waters, and Places", Paris, 1800

Brotherly Teaching, 1798

The Characters of Theophrastus, Paris, 1799

War Song of the Greeks Fighting for Freedom in Egypt, 1800

Martial Trumpet Call, Alexandria, 1801

Longus' Daphnis and Chloe (Pastoral Romance), Paris, 1802

On Crimes and Punishments, Paris, 1802

Memoir on the Present State of Civilization in Greece, Paris, 1803

Heliodorus’ Aethiopica, Paris, 1804

Prologue to the Greek Library including Claudius Aelianus’ Varia Historia, Heraclides Ponticus, and Nicolaus of Damascus' Works, Paris, 1805

Strabo’s Geography, Paris, 1805

What the Greeks Should Do Under Present Circumstances, Venice, 1805

Isocrates' Speeches and Letters, Paris, 1807

Plutarch’s Parallel Lives, Paris, 1809

Polyaenus' Stratagems, Paris, 1809

Collection of Aesopian Fables, Paris, 1810

Homer’s Iliad, Book I, Paris, 1811

Hierocles the Sophist’s Jests, Paris

On the Food from Aquatic Creatures by Xenocrates and Galen, Paris, 1814

Prologues Published by Korais to Various Authors, Vienna, 1815

Marcus Aurelius' Meditations, Paris, 1815

Homer’s Iliad, Book II, Paris, 1817

Homer’s Iliad, Book III, Paris, 1818

The Abolition of Scholasticism, Paris, 1818

Ode to Henri François d'Aguesseau by Antonios Korais, Paris, 1819

Spontaneous Dissertation on the Notorious Doctrine of the Skeptical Philosophers and Sophists, Leipzig

Homer’s Iliad, Book IV, Paris, 1820

Advice of Three Bishops, London, 1820

Aristotle’s Surviving Political Works, Paris, 1821

Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, Paris, 1822

Onesander’s Strategikos and Tyrtaeus' First Elegy, Paris, 1822

Political Admonitions to the Greeks, Paris, 1821

Plutarch’s Political Treatises, Paris, 1824

Xenophon’s Memorabilia and Plato’s Gorgias, Paris, 1825

Dialogue of Two Greeks on Greek Interests, Hydra, 1825

Epictetus' Handbook, Paris, 1826

Lycurgus’ Speech Against Leocrates, Paris, 1826

Arrian’s Discourses of Epictetus, Paris, 1827

Atakta, Volume I, Paris, 1828

Atakta, Volume II, Paris, 1829

Atakta, Volume III, Paris, 1830

Atakta, Volume IV, Paris, 1832

Atakta, Volume V, Paris, 1835

What Greece Freed from the Turks Should Do Now to Avoid Being Enslaved by Christian Turkophiles, Paris, 1830

Priestly Companion, Paris, 1831

Greek Miscellanies, Paris, 1831

Life of Adamantios Korais, Written by Himself, Paris, 1833

Collection of Prefaces to the Greek Library and Other Works of Adamantios Korais, Paris, 1833

Collection of the Late Korais' Prefaces, Athens, 1842

Foreign Bibliography

Diamantides, N. (1994-1995), "An Elective Encounter: The Koraes-Jefferson Connection", Modern Greek Studies Yearbook 10/11, 587–602.

Baladié, R. (1974), "Strabo in the Life and Work of Korais", O Eranistes, vol. 11, pp. 412–442.

Chaconas, St.G. (1968), Adamantios Korais: A Study in Greek Nationalism, New York.

Clogg, R. (1969), "The Correspondence of Adamantios Korais with Thomas Burgess 1789-1792".

Dujčev, I. (1972-1973), "Testimonies on the Relations between Adamantios Korais and N.S. Piccolos", Athena, vol. 73-74, pp. 819–828.

Enepekides, P.K. (1956), "Documents and New Unpublished Letters of Adamantios Korais from European Libraries and Archives (Paris-Besançon-Amsterdam-Leiden-Vienna-Munich-Berlin)", Yearbook of the Austrian Byzantine Society 5, 85–126.

Anzeiger der phil.-hist. Klasse der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften 106, 40–72.

Clogg, R. (1969), "The Correspondence of Adamantios Korais with the British and Foreign Bible Society", The Greek Orthodox Theological Review 14, 65–84.

Contiades-Tsitsoni, E. (1988), "Thucydides and Two Greek Philologists of the Enlightenment: Korais, Doukas", Würzburger Jahrbücher für die Altertumswissenschaft 14, 271–278.

Dimaras, C.Th. (1947), "Korais and Jeanne Wyttenbach: Some Unpublished Documents (1823–1829)", L’Hellénisme Contemporain 1, 361–371.

Dimaras, C.Th. (1962), "The Correspondence of Korais: Unpublished Documents", Revue de Littérature Comparée 36, 579–584.

Enepekides, P.K. (1956), "The Manuscript Sources of Early 19th-Century Greek Literary History Preserved in Central and Western European Archives", Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Byzantine Studies.